Designed by top architects from the East Coast and Chicago, the grand facades included tall columns, intricate ornaments, giant domes and massive sculptures. The White City - The 1893 World's Fair The White City The majority of the buildings from the World's Fair were white because they were meant to be temporary. The city experienced dramatic increases in ridership on the public transportation that took people to White City. We accomplished all of this years ago, in the wake of the Chicago Fire, and we couldnt get the Olympics today? she laughs. The housing development was to be called Parkway Gardens, and at the time, it was seen as a hopeful sign that a neglected neighborhood would have new housing. Nearby buildings housed exhibits that honored transportation, horticulture, fine arts, American states and nations abroad. Native American and anthropological treasures told the story of American and world history. As a teenager, he searched flea markets and antique shows for Columbian Exposition memorabilia. [4], Time once used the park as point of reference for the city of Chicago. In it, Liebling writes about his hatred for Chicago and contrasts it to his hometown New York City. Theres a display from Caroline Wade, an Elmhurst painter who taught at the Art Institute. A novel about, say, an alcoholic drug addict wanted by the police in three states might be diverting, but it's only make-believe. Yerkes Observatory: This astronomical outpost for the University of Chicago features what was the worlds largest lens-type telescope when it was displayed at the worlds fair. In 1909, Burnham developed Chicagos Burnham Plan, a blueprint for generous lakefront parks, a highway system and planned communities with parkland. Another emphasizes the growth of Chicago in the 19th century as it became a city of national stature, with a population second only to that . While many visitors thought the giant contraption of thin steel wires looked unsafe, it was surprisingly sturdy. [11] After the park had opened, there was one occasion when a ride malfunctioned; a patron was killed, and two other patrons were injured. The fair was designed. [15], White City had experienced periodic financial problems because attendance was dependent on the economy. The 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago was sometimes called "The White City" and is said to have inspired the Emerald City of Oz in the 1899 collaboration between L Frank Baum and W W Denslow. [44], Today, White City Amusement Park, which was once considered the equal of other turn of the century parks like Coney Island, is all but forgotten; but in its heyday, it was known as "the city of a million electric lights", because its tower was an amazing sight that could be seen for 15 miles. Elmhursts Roche is amazed at what shes discovered about the fair. It stands in Jackson Park today, a few hundred feet west of the original court. Statue of the Grand Republic: Daniel Chester French, the same artist who designed the Lincoln Memorial figure, created this gilded reproduction for the fairs 25th anniversary. The mid-western city of Chicago is sometimes. [4] The College Inn, a restaurant, could seat 2,500 diners at a time. It opened in 1933 during the citys next worlds fair. He did so in reference to the city's full-of-hot air politicians who were advocating and wooing organizers to hold the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in the city instead of in . This content continued into the early 1930s, when the "Sally Joy" of that time was a woman named Anna Nangle.[35]. As far back as 1915, there had been a question of whether the park's lease would be renewed, but finally the landlord, Chicago business mogul J. Ogden Armour re-negotiated it and the park remained open. " But perhaps the city is best known for its most unique moniker, "The White City. Official Guide to the Worlds Columbian Exposition, National Crimes: A New National Data Set of Lynchings in the United States, 1883 to 1941, The Reason Why The Colored American is Not in the Worlds Columbian Exposition, North American Indian population size, A.D. 1500 to 1985, https://smarthistory.org/white-city-and-fairgrounds/, Hamlin Garland in a letter to his parents, 1893. Nearly all their applications for space, however, met with rejection. Art Institute of Chicago: The Art Institutes current building, near Grant Park, was built as a meeting place for international scholars and lecturers during the worlds fair. The memory of that magical summer still beckons. On July 21, 1919, the dirigible run crashed into the Illinois Trust & Savings Building on LaSalle Street, killing twelve and injuring twenty-eight. [4] The slogan was replaced with another in 2022. One of the earliest recorded references of Chicago being called "Windy City" was in 1876. On the Midway Plaisance, stretching west toward Washington Park, an array of internationally themed food stands and entertainment spots featured wild new attractions. [38] A later fire in June 1927, however, was much more serious. Chicago has been called the "Great American City," and in his latest book troping on that title, my colleague Robert J. Sampson draws on more than a decade of research in the "Windy City" to argue . Only 22 years later, Chicago celebrated its comeback by holding the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, with its memorable "White City." One of the Exposition buildings was rebuilt to become the Museum of Science and Industry. When France hosted its Exposition Universelle in Paris, in 1889, the events ultramodern steel-and-glass exhibit halls and symbolic Eiffel Tower sparked international jealousy. For the song, see, "Chi-raq" redirects here. They felt that White City was the place to launch the crusade in a very spectacular fashion. [17], To protest the exclusion of Black Americans from the Worlds Fair, anti-lynching activist Ida B. [14] The nickname continues to be used during cold weather events, for example in 2017[15] and in 2019. The city is windy, according to most local legends, because of the hot air bellowing from politicians." Actually, you'd be right, but you'd be fighting an . And in this battle of cities its most insistent claim was it must have the fair because it was the "most typically American" of the country's large cities. May 9, 2017 Matt Blitz. [23], In 1945, the land on which White City had stood was designated for a co-operative housing development for African-Americans. Wells and famous abolitionist Frederick Douglass (who had been appointed as a delegate for Haiti, not the United States) circulated 10,000 copies of a pamphlet at the Fair entitled, The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the Worlds Columbian Exposition. When the Field Museum moved to Grant Park in 1921, the building sat vacant until a gift from Sears CEO Julius Rosenwald funded major renovations and a hands-on museum dedicated to science. The scenic railway and half of the Figure 8 took the brunt of the damage. The Womens Building celebrated womens progress. A Chicago Tribune advice columnist whose pen name was "Sally Joy Brown" sponsored a children's event beginning in 1923. (Pressed to appoint women to judge submissions of fine art, the male directors deliberately appointed female artists who were either living abroad or lacking money to travel, thus preventing their participation.) This was part of the Bohemian Glass exhibit in the Manufactures & Liberal Arts building at the fair, he says. [8] Thomas Hovendens picture of a young man striking out on his own, was purported to be the most popular picture among visitors to the Fair, who appreciated its simple, homely sentiment. The novel inspired Larson to write a non-fiction book about a murderer in that time period. To help with planning and landscaping, the pair hired Frederick Law Olmstead, a landscape architect who planned both New Yorks Central Park and suburban Riverside, Ill. The . In only a few years, Jackson Park was transformed, and at its focal point stood the majestic Court of Honor. ", Louise Hutchinson. To prove Americas place on the world stage, fair organizers sought to one-up the Parisians. In 1893, Charles A. Dana, an editor of the "New York Sun," published an editorial calling Chicago a "windy city.". On the far side of the Basin stood Daniel Chester Frenchs statue. Although it had become the nations second-largest city, it was a metropolis built on industry, by names like McCormick, Pullman, and Field. [23] The park featured regular outdoor concerts,[24] and it had a roller rink. He is young, handsome, and well dressed, and his eyes are blue and hypnotic a trait, a physician once pointed out, which many murderers, and great men in other fields, often share. In fact, meteorological surveys have often. The science museum, on the other hand, first was an art museum. [13] The new park's operation appeared as safe as similar parks, and almost from the beginning, White City was very well received. And Why NYE Organizers Chose It", "Meet the Man Who Coined the Word 'Chiberia', "Pic of the Week: Chicago Lives up to 'Chiberia' Nickname after Cold Snap Turns City to Ice", "Despite 'Chiraq' Label, Data Show Chicago Not Even Close to Iraq", "Chiraq: What's in a Nickname? [39] But the Depression, along with the ongoing problems from the fires of 1925 and 1927, had a very negative impact on White City. Burnhams once-mighty Rookery and Monadnock still stand, dwarfed by modern skyscrapers. What is propaganda and what role did it play in WWII. [11]. Denslow left San Francisco to document the Chicago fair for local newspapers, and visited it frequently. The winning design, an Italian-Renaissance style palazzo, was the work of Chilean-American architect Sophia Hayden, the first female graduate of MITs four-year architecture program. 1-Sentence-Summary: The Devil In The White City tells the story of Chicago in the late 1800s and how it had a chance to rise above terrible crime and social unrest when it won the bid to host the Worlds Fair but instead ended up contributing to the creation of the worlds first known serial killer.Apr 9, 2021. Jones had visited the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 and been so impressed that he aspired to create an amusement park that was similar to it. [10] Wendy McClure wrote in the Chicago Reader in 2017 that it is the "cilantro of nicknames": its distastefulness depends on who is using it. He never meets Holmes, but there is also an overarching struggle between Burnhams inherent goodness as the protagonist and Holmes inherent depravity as the antagonist. The largest city of the American Midwest, Chicago, Illinois, was founded in 1830 and quickly grew to become, as Carl Sandburg's 1916 poem put it, "Hog Butcher, Tool Maker, Stacker of Wheat,. More From Britannica Daniel Burnham: The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 Located at the northern end of Jackson Park, the Palace of Fine Arts once held valuable artwork from around the world. Daniel Burnham: The Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893. It was held along Lake Michigan, on what is now the Museum Campus and Northerly Island Park. The Devil in the White City contains evidence of the great innovative and economic success that came with the Gilded Age, but it also digs deeper into the excess of corruption and gluttony that was fueling Americas tremendous overall growth. The movable sidewalk, today a staple at airports, made its first appearance on the south pier. Nearly 40 million visitors came during the fairs two years of operation. There are a few versions to that answer. Chicago was chosen in part because it was a railroad centre and in part because it offered a guarantee of $10 million. During this period it was known as the Great White City due to the white marble cladding used on the exhibition pavilions, and hence gave its name to this part of Shepherds Bush. Exhibits were arranged by the Smithsonian Institutes George B. Goode, who sought more than just machinery. The book interweaves the true tales of Daniel Burnham, the architect behind the 1893 Worlds Fair, and H. H. Holmes, a serial killer who lured his victims to their deaths in his elaborately constructed Murder Castle. Its base stood 40 feet high; the statue itself was 65 feet tall. [9], If our visitor had not yet collapsed from exhaustion, she may have turned toward the Womens Building, the Fairs second-smallest building, situated at the intersection between the White City and the Midway Plaisance. The works of Louis Sullivan, whose Transportation Building at the fair drew fans and critics, still stand. Americas first commemorative postage stamps were issued during the fair, but Ken Srail didnt realize that as a kid collecting stamps. The objects they collected for the Fairalong with the dioramaswould go on to form the basis of the collections at Chicagos Field Museum. [18] The Baby Incubators exhibit, a feature of several other fairs and parks of that time, attracted much attention and many donations. Newspaper reports said it started in a storage area near the railway, and it attracted a large crowd. The anthropologists believed that Indigenous people were a dying race whose culture and objects must be preserved before they were either exterminated or made inauthentic by the influence of Euroamerican culture. 1950s and 1960s newspaper articles associated the park with an owner named Aaron Jones who was a Chicago entrepreneur who had been a successful operator of a penny-arcade business. It is displayed in the city's seal. The Small Business Administration's field office staff has shrunk even as its role in the pandemic has grown, but costs have also risen even as the agency's salary budget flatlined. Some historians believe the 1927 fire signalled the beginning of the end for the park. W https://t.co/WYwop1APyq, Throwback to one of our all-time favorite quizzes! Plot Summary Officially titled The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America, this book is a nonfiction novel that focuses on events that occurred at the 1893 Worlds Fair in Chicago: the creation of the fair and a series of killings that occurred during the fair.10 Apr 2021. major conflict Burnham struggles to design and lead the construction of the Worlds Fair. The year 1893 had the greatest number of lynchings on record between 1882 and 1940. On America the Beautiful, see, Official Views of the Worlds Columbian Exposition, (Learn more about the ideas behind and construction of the Worlds Fair in this introductory essay.). Directed by Frederic Putnam, with the help of his young assistant Franz Boas (who, as a professor at Columbia University, later became the father of modern anthropology), the Department of Anthropology enticed fourteen members of the Kwakw. This essay will focus on the visitor experience within the main fairgrounds; you can read about the Midway Plaisance in this essay. In more recent years, Chicagoans have found a renewed interest in the Columbian Exposition, thanks largely to Larsons Devil in the White City. Omissions? If it was all too grand, that was the intention. Set amid the Great Depression, the fair celebrated science, technology and commerce in buildings sponsored by corporations including General Motors, Chrysler, Havoline and Sears Roebuck. After the fair, the museum occupied the building, for which it had paid half of the construction costs. They show beautiful workmanship with applied gold lattice work and hand-painted floral designs.. A replica of that gilded woman, the Statue of the Grand Republic, still stands in Jackson Park, extending its arms over what was the Court of Honor, though today its located a little west. [39] But the Depression, along with the ongoing problems from the fires of 1925 and 1927, had a very negative impact on White City. Just a few years before the Columbian Exposition, a farmer in Norway had discovered in his field the Gokstad, a buried Viking ship. Chicago had won the right to hold the fair in a heated competition with New York that was decided by Congress, its bluster and bragging gaining it the now-misapplied nickname the Windy City. The buildings and architecture of Chicago reflect the city's history and multicultural heritage, featuring prominent buildings in a variety of styles. Thats what loyal fans of https://t.co/5XrnXAlHx0, Rockford residents might recognize @AndyGannon23 as the friendly face that greets them every morning on @23WIFR. Today, a new exhibit at the Elmhurst Historical Museum, 120 E. Park Ave., in Elmhurst, shows a local angle on the Columbian Exposition. Around the court stood exhibit halls that celebrated agriculture, machinery, electricity and mining. The pamphlet went on to expose how each effort made to participate in the Fair had been rebuffed, making plain the discrimination operating at every level. That electricity also enabled George W.G. His protg, Frank Lloyd Wright, then a young architect, is believed to have found inspiration in the fairs Japanese exhibits. "The Tribune's Sally Joy to Retire Soon,", "Blimp Bursts Over Loop; A 1919 Tragedy.". Nineteenth-century journalists first gave Chicago . Women look at Holmes as he walks through Chicago. Adding to the wonder, the fair was entirely lit and powered by George Westinghouses system of alternating current power. Some of the freaks of the Last Chicago Tornado." So, while Chicago may not be the windiest city in the U.S., the area has been plagued by significant tornadoes from time to time. Couney[32] maintained an exhibit of an incubator in which live infants were tended, including the daughter of the editor of the Chicago Tribune. 4.1K views, 50 likes, 28 loves, 154 comments, 48 shares, Facebook Watch Videos from 7th District AME Church: Thursday Morning Opening Session The Viking Ship: A dozen Norwegians sailed this Viking ship replica across the ocean, through the Erie Canal and the Great Lakes, into Chicago. Over the course of a week, 38 people died and over 500 sustained injuries with Black Chicagoans making up a majority of the victims. Its done in conjunction with a national traveling exhibit that describes all of Americas worlds fairs, from New York in 1853 to Knoxville, Tenn., in 1982. Starting in the ballroom, it spread and did over $200,000 in damage; the tower that was not harmed in the 1911 fire finally was destroyed in this blaze. Built in Norway and transported to Chicago, it was a recreation of a Norwegian chapel. [20], The park information mentioned a small Ferris wheel that had six cars and a miniature railroad. It initially had two stars until 1933, when a third was added. The Meaning Behind Chicago, the "Second City" It's definitely one of the more mysterious Chicago nicknames, so there are several theories about why Chicago is called "the Second City": The Great Chicago Fire: In 1871, the city was destroyed by a raging fire that lasted for days. The numbers of Indigenous people living in the United States reached a demographic nadir of between 200,000 and 300,000 individuals around 1900, or less than 10% than had lived in North America before the arrival of Columbus. [18] For example, Spike Lee used the nickname as the title of his 2015 film,[17] Lil Reese used it in his 2013 song "Traffic", and Urban Dictionary added it as an entry in 2012. The former site of Mudgett's "murder castle" is now a post office in Englewood. The Park City rink closed in 1958. The Ferris Wheel is a monument to American ingenuity, bravery, and creativity. [42] Admission policies were desegregated when the neighborhood changed and more people of color resided nearby. [4] A dirigible serviced the park, bringing passengers from Chicago's Grant Park. A gilded statue of a woman, her arms raised, looked over the court. Sally Joy's column had become famous for getting readers to do good deeds to help the poor, and even children often participated in lending a hand. And to think that just a few years earlier, this had been a swampy, desolate place, an untamed wilderness along Lake Michigan, inside a city exploding with growth after the Great Fire 20 years earlier. [4], A protg of the Fairs artistic advisor, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, MacMonnies was an emerging American sculptor who had been trained at the cole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Locally, the White City inspired Chicagos love affair with architecture. Played mostly right tackle during his career (64% of snaps) but . Firefighters were able to put the fire out without anyone sustaining serious injuries. They were built with stucco and then painted with compressed-air squirt guns for quickness. The telescopes two optically perfect glass disks made it the worlds largest refractor telescope when it was displayed at the Manufactures & Liberal Arts building. By October, nearly 20,000 people a day were riding the Ferris Wheel. The author based his story on historical research found at the Chicago Historical Museum and the Art Institute. He complains about Chicago's economic decline, rampant organized crime and political corruption, declining population, outdated schools of thought, and general dependency on the cities along the east coast. What could be more idyllic than a summer night enjoying music by the lake? In the summer of 1893, there was no more exciting destination in the United States than the Worlds Columbian Exposition. Within the main fairgrounds, our visitor would have had few if any opportunities to appreciate the contributions of Black Americans to the United States. [6][7], "Chi-town", "Chi-Town", or "Chitown" (/atan/ SHY-town)[8] is a nickname that follows an established pattern of shortening a city's name and appending the suffix "-town", like "H-Town" refers to Houston. The authors purpose was to inform his audience about what had happened at the 1893 Chicago Worlds Fair. Why Chicago Is Really Called The Windy City. The grandest of them all was the Manufactures and Liberal Arts building, which filled 1.3 million square feet under one roof. The Kwakwaka'wakw village was the work of the Department of Anthropology at the Fair. By the time the fair ended, on Oct. 31, 1893, nearly 27.5 million visitors had passed through the gates, nearly 700,000 of them on the most popular day. In Streets of Cairo, for example, men ogled belly dancers performing the hoochy coochy.. climax Patrick Prendergast assassinates Mayor Harrison. Audience: This story aims toward a mature and history-enthralled audience. infant from Indiana, called the "Tiniest Baby in the World", was written up in the San Francisco Chronicle, July 20, 1905, p.2) At the time, not every hospital had incubators, and the Chicago Tribune was among the newspapers that used the Baby Incubator displays to raise money so that all hospitals in the Chicago area would have them. Newspaper articles that reported declining business in 1911 called Morris the "President of White City Construction Company, which operates the Chicago amusement park. Black people were discouraged from attending during the park's early years. Often noted as the inspiration for the City Beautiful movement, the fair proved to be a turning point both Read More In World's Columbian Exposition Located in the center of the Midway, the wheel stood more than 250 feet tall and could hold more than 2,000 people in its 36 railroad car-sized cabins. In conclusion, Chicago was both a "white city" and "black city" during the World's Colombian Exposition of 1893. "State and City Inquiry in Balloon Tragedy", "The Roller-Coaster Life Of Towering And Tawdry White City", "WHITE CITY" FOR BERLIN: Charles R. Lynch of Chicago Projects New Amusement Enterprise", "CHICAGO White City amusement park Ferris wheel railway", "White City Roller Rink Demonstration, 1949", "Annette Kellerman Sullivan, 87, 'Million Dollar Mermaid,' Dead", "Question of the Month: African Dip Carnival Game", "Skating through the color barrier Jimmy Davis's persistence led to the first roller rink open to black enthusiasts", White City Amusement Park 1905-1933. [2] The park had a tower that could be seen for 15 miles (24.1km). [21] Anda. Conceived as a celebration of the anniversary of Christopher Columbuss arrival in the Americas, the Chicago. White mobs flooded the city's Black neighborhoods, lighting homes on fire and attacking residents. APRIL 30 NEW KICKER PLAN The Cowboys had their eyes on kickers in this NFL Draft, maybe especially Jake Moody, the All-American from Michigan (naturally, given what Dallas did with its first two . White City served as the place of assembly and departure point for the first Goodyear Blimp, called the "Wingfoot Air Express". Erik Larson describes one scene in his historical nonfiction book about the fair, Devil in the White City: [The passenger] began throwing himself at the walls of the car with such power that he managed to bend some of the protective iron. White City (sometimes listed as White City Amusement Park in print advertisements) was a recreational area located in the Greater Grand Crossing and Woodlawn community areas on the south side of Chicago from 1905 until the 1950s. Sadly, few buildings were made to last. Howse. [6][7] In its prime the park rivalled Coney Island as a model for worldwide amusement park architects, designers and planners. Despite a petition to name some women to the Fairs governing body, Congress instead created a Board of Lady Managers. [10], They hoped to steer the Fair away from giving visitors the impression that the progress of civilization was entirely the work of men. It Could Be a Lot". Most structures downtown were destroyed by the Great Chicago Fire in 1871 (an exception being the Water Tower).. Chicago's architectural styles include Chicago Bungalows, Two-Flats, and Graystones along Logan Boulevard and Lawndale Avenue. The story revolves around a controversial detective who holds strange beliefs about the psychological nature of his suspects, and Larson loved the book because he felt like he was transported to 1890s New York. The White House Correspondents' Association has an online shop, where it sells a T-shirt that is funnier than most . . For the film, see. Patrice Roche, the museums marketing and communications specialist, marvels at what shes discovered. He has a hand-painted piano that was displayed in the California building. One of the buildings housed a ballroom with a dancefloor large enough for 1,000 dancers. At the Elmhurst Historical Museum, visitors can see some of the unique memorabilia collected by local residents. Updated by the minute, our Dallas Cowboys NFL Tracker: News and views and moves inside The Star and around the league . The legends were true Captain Magnus Anderson knew it. 4 year starter for the Vols (42 games). [19] The Chicago Park District adopted a seal in 1934 that contains the Latin phrase Hortus in Urbe, meaning 'Garden in a City'. But Chicago was an unlikely location. an allegorical figure of the United States (illustrated at the top of this page), which stood more than 65 feet tall, holding an eagle perching on top of a globe in one hand, and a staff topped by a Phrygian cap in the other. "Second City" originates as an insult from a series of articles in The New Yorker by A.J. Liebling, later combined into a book titled Chicago: The Second City (1952). Still located in their original places, both buildings have undergone extensive renovations. [3] It eventually introduced the world to the Goodyear Blimp, which was first assembled at the park. They were covered in staff, a stucco-like combination of plaster and jute fiber, and painted a gleaming white. Now, the newspaper wanted to provide free access to the park for 100 lucky boys and girls who sent in the best letters explaining why they wanted to come to Sally's party and spend a day at White City. [44] In 1946, the Congress of Racial Equality sued the management of the rink, saying it was violating the Illinois Civil Rights Law. White City" was also the name associated with the landscaping and architecture of the World's Columbian Exposition, held near the same location in 1893 because the exhibition's buildings used plaster of Parisand were painted a chalky white. Model homes displayed building materials and appliances of the future, such as air conditioning. "Meeting in White City Dance Hall Inaugurates Great Evangelical Campaign. [3] In 2011, Chicago announced its adoption of the slogan "Second to None", a protest stance indirectly referring to Liebling's publications. The evangelists planned to make appearances all over the Chicago area during the month, but wanted to do something very memorable to begin their revival. Jim Crow laws received the stamp of constitutionality from the U.S. Supreme Court. The city of Chicago has been known by many nicknames, but it is most widely recognized as the "Windy City".. The single-span building, supported by a steel frame, was larger than anything from the Paris exposition. A young doctor, H. H. Holmes, steps off a train in Chicago, and he enjoys the city because of its smoke, chaos, and ability to hide dark acts. [17] The origin of the nickname is not definitive, but saw increasing popularity in usage around the end of the Iraq War. The Skyride carried passengers in a rocket car 219 feet into the air. Jeremy W. Peters . Both are housed in buildings constructed for the 1893 worlds fair. By its close in October 1934, nearly 40 million visitors had seen Chicagos most colorful fair. ", "Chicago Is a City of Objectionable Nicknames", "Does Anyone Use 'Chi-Town'? Built by Chicagos elite, the White City was their vision of what a great city could be like at a time when the countrys large cities were almost universally thought to be ugly, disorderly, dangerous, and ungovernable. The Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893, declared by its contemporary critics to be the most magical and opulent fair to date, would become a charred wasteland just a few months after closing. To put it simply, Erik Larsons main claim in The Devil in the White City can be surmised by the tagline on the books cover: Murder, magic, and madness at the fair that changed America. This is the very meaning of the book.
