IEEE Transactions On Geoscience And Remote Sensing, Vol. In [22] Proposed the first type of categorization of image fusion techniques, depending on how the PAN information is used during the fusion procedure techniques, can be grouped into three classes: Fusion Procedures Using All Panchromatic Band Frequencies, Fusion Procedures Using Selected Panchromatic Band Frequencies and Fusion Procedures Using the Panchromatic Band Indirectly . This electromagnetic radiation is directed to the surface and the energy that is reflected back from the surface is recorded [6] .This energy is associated with a wide range of wavelengths, forming the electromagnetic spectrum. "That's really where a lot of the push is now with decreasing defense budgetsand getting this technology in the hands of our war fighters.". Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. The much better spatial resolution of the AVHRR instruments on board NOAA-polar orbiting satellites is extremely useful for detecting and monitoring relatively small-scale St/fog areas. In the commercial high-resolution satellite market, EROS is the smallest very high resolution satellite; it is very agile and thus enables very high performances. The ESA is currently developing the Sentinel constellation of satellites. This level can be used as a means of creating additional composite features. A specific remote sensing instrument is designed to operate in one or more wavebands, which are chosen with the characteristics of the intended target in mind [8]. According to Onat, "Long-wave IR imagers, which sense thermal signatures, provide excellent detection capability in low-light-level conditions." In addition, operator dependency was also a main problem of existing fusion techniques, i.e. Multi-source remote sensing data fusion: status and trends, International Journal of Image and Data Fusion, Vol. In remote sensing image, a Pixel is the term most widely used to denote the elements of a digital image. In comparison, the PAN data has only one band. walls, doors) , smoke, dust, fog, sunlight etc. By selecting particular band combination, various materials can be contrasted against their background by using colour. Section 3 describes multi-sensors Images; there are sub sections like; processing levels of image fusion; categorization of image fusion techniques with our attitude towards categorization; Section 4 describes the discussion on the problems of available techniques. A pixel has an For example, the Landsat satellite can view the same area of the globe once every 16 days. Each travel on the same orbital plane at 630km, and deliver images in 5 meter pixel size. 8, Issue 3, No. Rivers will remain dark in the imagery as long as they are not frozen. Petrou M., 1999. Computer processing of Remotely Sensed Images. Ikonos and Quickbird) and there are only a few very high spectral resolution sensors with a low spatial resolution. This eliminates "flare" from SWIR images. To help differentiate between clouds and snow, looping pictures can be helpful; clouds will move while the snow won't. The obtained information is then combined applying decision rules to reinforce common interpretation [32]. "Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing".Prentice-Hall,Inc. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Vol. - Images cannot be captured at night. Maxar's WorldView-2 satellite provides high resolution commercial satellite imagery with 0.46 m spatial resolution (panchromatic only). The wavelengths at which electromagnetic radiation is partially or wholly transmitted through the atmosphere are known as atmospheric windowing [6]. Landsat TM, SPOT-3 HRV) uses the sun as the source of electromagnetic radiation. Landsat is the oldest continuous Earth-observing satellite imaging program. LWIR technology is used in thermal weapons sights, advanced night-vision goggles and vehicles to enhance driver vision. Since temperature tends to decrease with height in the troposphere, upper level clouds will be very white while clouds closer to the surface will not be as white. Mapping vegetation through remotely sensed images involves various considerations, processes and techniques. It aims at obtaining information of greater quality; and the exact definition of greater quality will depend upon the application [28]. By remotely sensing from their orbits high above the Earth, satellites provide us much more information than would be possible to obtain solely from the surface. The CORONA program was a series of American strategic reconnaissance satellites produced and operated by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Directorate of Science & Technology with substantial assistance from the U.S. Air Force. Remote sensing images are available in two forms: photographic film form and digital form, which are related to a property of the object such as reflectance. 2.2 REMOTE SENSING RESOLUTION CONSIDERATION. A Black Hawk helicopter is thermally imaged with a high-definition video camera at MWIR wavelengths near Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada. Other meaning of spatial resolution is the clarity of the high frequency detail information available in an image. . Simone, G.; Farina, A.; Morabito, F.C. IR images are often colorized to bring out details in cloud patterns. Commercial satellite companies do not place their imagery into the public domain and do not sell their imagery; instead, one must acquire a license to use their imagery. Different SM have been employed for fusing MS and PAN images. An element in the display on a monitor or data projector. Spot Image also distributes multiresolution data from other optical satellites, in particular from Formosat-2 (Taiwan) and Kompsat-2 (South Korea) and from radar satellites (TerraSar-X, ERS, Envisat, Radarsat). The available fusion techniques have many limitations and problems. Maxar's WorldView-3 satellite provides high resolution commercial satellite imagery with 0.31 m spatial resolution. With visible optics, the f# is usually defined by the optics. from our awesome website, All Published work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Copyright 2023 Research and Reviews, All Rights Reserved, All submissions of the EM system will be redirected to, Publication Ethics & Malpractice Statement, Journal of Global Research in Computer Sciences, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. In winter, snow-covered ground will be white, which can make distinguishing clouds more difficult. Fusion of high spatial and spectral resolution images: the ARSIS concept and its implementation. For example, an 8-bit digital number will range from 0 to 255 (i.e. "But in most cases, the idea is to measure radiance (radiometry) or temperature to see the heat signature.". Geometric resolution refers to the satellite sensor's ability to effectively image a portion of the Earth's surface in a single pixel and is typically expressed in terms of, Land surface climatologyinvestigation of land surface parameters, surface temperature, etc., to understand land-surface interaction and energy and moisture fluxes, Vegetation and ecosystem dynamicsinvestigations of vegetation and soil distribution and their changes to estimate biological productivity, understand land-atmosphere interactions, and detect ecosystem change, Volcano monitoringmonitoring of eruptions and precursor events, such as gas emissions, eruption plumes, development of lava lakes, eruptive history and eruptive potential. "[16], Satellite photography can be used to produce composite images of an entire hemisphere, or to map a small area of the Earth, such as this photo of the countryside of, Campbell, J. The spatial resolution is dependent on the IFOV. The earths surface absorbs about half of the incoming solar energy. A pixel has an intensity value and a location address in the two dimensional image. "Since the pixel sizes are typically smaller in high definition detectors, the risk of having this happen is higher, which would create a softening of your image.". Please try another search. The multispectral sensor records signals in narrow bands over a wide IFOV while the PAN sensor records signals over a narrower IFOV and over a broad range of the spectrum. The Reconnaissance, Surveillance and Target Acquisition (RSTA) group at DRS Technologies (Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.) has developed a VOx uncooled focal-plane array (UFPA) consisting of 17-m pixel-pitch detectors measuring 1,024 768. Enter your email address to receive all news In recent decades, the advent of satellite-based sensors has extended our ability to record information remotely to the entire earth and beyond. different operators with different knowledge and experience usually produced different fusion results for same method. A nonexhaustive list of companies pursuing 15-m pitch sensors includes Raytheon (Waltham, Mass., U.S.A.), Goodrich/Sensors Unlimited (Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.), DRS Technologies (Parsippany, N.J., U.S.A.), AIM INFRAROT-MODULE GmbH (Heilbronn, Germany), and Sofradir (Chtenay-Malabry, France). For color image there will be three matrices, or one matrix. Malik N. H., S. Asif M. Gilani, Anwaar-ul-Haq, 2008. Hsu S. H., Gau P. W., I-Lin Wu I., and Jeng J. H., 2009,Region-Based Image Fusion with Artificial Neural Network. Looking at the same image in both the visible and infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum provides insights that a single image cannot. Dry, sick, and unhealthy vegetation tends to absorb more near-infrared light rather than reflecting it, so NDVI images can depict that. Institute of Physics Publishing Inc., London. Elsevier Ltd.pp.393-482. Infrared waves at high power can damage eyes. Hoffer, A.M., 1978. There are several remote sensing satellites often launched into special orbits, geostationary orbits or sun synchronous orbits. "Night-vision devices to blend infrared technology, image intensifiers," Military & Aerospace Electronics (2008). Recognition is the second stepin other words, the ability to discriminate between a man and something else, such as a cow or deer. The microbolometer sensor used in the U8000 is a key enabling technology. Morristown, TN5974 Commerce Blvd.Morristown, TN 37814(423) 586-3771Comments? 32303239. "Getting cost down," says Irvin at Clear Align. pixel, feature and decision level of representation [29]. Thus, the ability to legally make derivative works from commercial satellite imagery is diminished. Hence it does not work through walls or doors. The company also offers infrastructures for receiving and processing, as well as added value options. Slow speeds are the biggest disadvantage associated with satellite Internet. >> Defense Update (2010). 2.7 There is a tradeoff between the spatial and spectral resolutions. The main disadvantage of visible-light cameras is that they cannot capture images at night or in low light (at dusk or dawn, in fog, etc.). These sensors produce images . Pohl C., Van Genderen J. L., 1998, "Multisensor image fusion in remote sensing: concepts, methods and applications", . 64, No. The number of gray levels can be represented by a greyscale image is equal to 2, where n is the number of bits in each pixel [20]. 6940, Infrared Technology and Applications XXXIV (2008). Infrared (IR) light is used by electrical heaters, cookers for cooking food, short-range communications like remote controls, optical fibres, security systems and thermal imaging cameras which . While the specifics are hard to pin down, the trends are evident. Efficiently shedding light on a scene is typically accomplished with lasers. The radiometric resolution of a remote sensing system is a measure of how many gray levels are measured between pure black and pure white [6]. Campbell (2002)[6] defines these as follows: The resolution of satellite images varies depending on the instrument used and the altitude of the satellite's orbit. Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis. >> L.G. A. Al-zuky ,2011. MSAVI2 This type of image composite is mostly used in agriculture and MSAVI2 stands for Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index. The scene (top) is illuminated with a helium-neon (HeNe) laser with no speckle reduction (center) and with a HeNe laser with speckle reduction (bottom). International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge Discovery Vol.1, Issue 3, July, 2011 5, pp. Computer Vision and Image Processing: Apractical Approach Using CVIP tools. Most of the existing methods were developed for the fusion of low spatial resolution images such as SPOT and Land-sat TM they may or may not be suitable for the fusion of VHR image for specific tasks. Fusion techniques in this group use high pass filters, Fourier transform or wavelet transform, to model the frequency components between the PAN and MS images by injecting spatial details in the PAN and introducing them into the MS image. Statistical Methods (SM) Based Image Fusion. The features involve the extraction of feature primitives like edges, regions, shape, size, length or image segments, and features with similar intensity in the images to be fused from different types of images of the same geographic area. Visible Imagery Decision-level fusion consists of merging information at a higher level of abstraction, combines the results from multiple algorithms to yield a final fused decision (see Fig.4.c). >> Goodrich Corp. "Technology: Why SWIR? Other products for IR imaging from Clear Align include the INSPIRE family of preengineered SWIR lenses for high-resolution imaging. Firouz A. Al-Wassai, N.V. Kalyankar, A. Radiation from the sun interacts with the surface (for example by reflection) and the detectors aboard the remote sensing platform measure the amount of energy that is reflected. Jain A. K., 1989. Each pixel in the Princeton Lightwave 3-D image sensor records time-of-flight distance information to create a 3-D image of surroundings. The finer the IFOV is, the higher the spatial resolution will be. However, Problems and limitations associated with them which explained in above section. Therefore, the clouds over Louisiana, Mississippi, and western Tennessee in image (a) appear gray in the infrared image (b) because of they are lower . The technology enables long-range identification through common battlefield obscurants such as smoke, fog, foliage and camouflage," he says. 9, pp. For example, we use NDVI in agriculture, forestry, and the . Review article, Sensors 2010, 10, 9647-9667; doi:10.3390/s101109647. The IHS Transformations Based Image Fusion. This is a major disadvantage for uses like capturing images of individuals in cars, for example. "While Geiger-mode APDs aren't a new technology, we successfully applied our SWIR APD technology to 3-D imaging thanks to our superb detector uniformity," according to Onat. The NIR portion of the spectrum is typically defined as ranging from the end of the visible spectrum around 900 nm to 1.7 m. Hill J., Diemer C., Stver O., Udelhoven Th.,1999. 113135. Radiometric resolution is defined as the ability of an imaging system to record many levels of brightness (contrast for example) and to the effective bit-depth of the sensor (number of grayscale levels) and is typically expressed as 8-bit (0255), 11-bit (02047), 12-bit (04095) or 16-bit (065,535). Image courtesy: NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. Wavelet Based Exposure Fusion. A general definition of data fusion is given by group set up of the European Association of Remote Sensing Laboratories (EARSeL) and the French Society for Electricity and Electronics (SEE, French affiliate of the IEEE), established a lexicon of terms of reference. EROS A a high resolution satellite with 1.91.2m resolution panchromatic was launched on December 5, 2000. The four satellites operate from an altitude of 530km and are phased 90 from each other on the same orbit, providing 0.5m panchromatic resolution and 2m multispectral resolution on a swath of 12km.[14][15]. One of the major advantages of visible imagery is that it has a higher resolution (about 0.6 miles) than IR images (about 2.5 miles), so you can distinguish smaller features with VIS imagery. also a pixel level fusion where new values are created or modelled from the DN values of PAN and MS images. in Image Fusion: Algorithms and Applications .Edited by: Stathaki T. Image Fusion: Algorithms and Applications. Designed as a dual civil/military system, Pliades will meet the space imagery requirements of European defence as well as civil and commercial needs. >> H. Yuan et al. "The use of digital sensors in enhanced night-vision digital goggles improves performance over prior generations' analog technology." m. spectral resolution is defined by the wavelength interval size (discrete segment of the Electromagnetic Spectrum) and number of intervals that the sensor is measuring; temporal resolution is defined by the amount of time (e.g. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 53, pp 156 -159. Applications of satellite remote sensing from geostationary (GEO) and low earth orbital (LEO) platforms, especially from passive microwave (PMW) sensors, are focused on TC detection, structure, and intensity analysis as well as precipitation patterns. Thanks to recent advances, optics companies and government labs are improving low-light-level vision, identification capability, power conservation and cost. Likewise with remote sensing of the atmosphere. The SWIR region bridges the gap between visible wavelengths and peak thermal sensitivity of infrared, scattering less than visible wavelengths and detecting low-level reflected light at longer distancesideal for imaging through smoke and fog. The volume of the digital data can potentially be large for multi-spectral data, as a given area covered in many different wavelength bands. Currently, 7 missions are planned, each for a different application. 7-1. The earths surface, clouds, and the atmosphere then re-emit part of this absorbed solar energy as heat. The goal of NASA Earth Science is to develop a scientific understanding of the Earth as an integrated system, its response to change, and to better predict variability and trends in climate, weather, and natural hazards.[8]. [citation needed] Preprocessing, such as image destriping, is often required. This discrepancy between the wavelengths causes considerable colour distortion to occur when fusing high resolution PAN and MS images. For the price, a satellite can take high-resolution images of the same area covered by a drone, with the . So there are about 60 X 60 km2 pixels per image, each pixel value in each band coded using an 8-bit (i.e. Collecting energy over a larger IFOV reduces the spatial resolution while collecting it over a larger bandwidth reduces its spectral resolution. Clouds, the earth's atmosphere, and the earth's surface all absorb and reflect incoming solar radiation. A greater number of bands mean that more portions of the spectrum are recorded and greater discrimination can be applied to determining what a particular surface material or object is. The. In addition to the ever-present demand to reduce size, weight and power, the trend in the military and defense industry is to develop technology that cuts costsin other words, to do more with less. There are five types of resolution when discussing satellite imagery in remote sensing: spatial, spectral, temporal, radiometric and geometric. The concept of data fusion goes back to the 1950s and 1960s, with the search for practical methods of merging images from various sensors to provide a composite image. Prentic Hall. Melkonian et al. Space Science and Engineering Center (SSEC): https://www.ssec.wisc.edu/data/us_comp/large Because the total area of the land on Earth is so large and because resolution is relatively high, satellite databases are huge and image processing (creating useful images from the raw data) is time-consuming. The coordinated system of EOS satellites, including Terra, is a major component of NASA's Science Mission Directorate and the Earth Science Division. SATELLITE DATA AND THE RESOLUTION DILEMMA. These techniques cover the whole electromagnetic spectrum from low-frequency radio waves through the microwave, sub-millimeter, far infrared, near infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma-ray regions of the spectrum. These orbits enable a satellite to always view the same area on the earth such as meteorological satellites. Satellite images have many applications in meteorology, oceanography, fishing, agriculture, biodiversity conservation, forestry, landscape, geology, cartography, regional planning, education, intelligence and warfare. A single physical element of a sensor array. Privacy concerns have been brought up by some who wish not to have their property shown from above. If a multi-spectral SPOT scene digitized also at 10 m pixel size, the data volume will be 108 million bytes. Some of the popular AC methods for pan sharpening are the Bovey Transform (BT); Colour Normalized Transformation (CN); Multiplicative Method (MLT) [36]. International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science, Volume 2, No. FLIR Advanced Thermal Solutions is vertically integrated, which means they grow their own indium antimonide (InSb) detector material and hybridize it on their FLIR-designed ROICs. 2. The dimension of the ground-projected is given by IFOV, which is dependent on the altitude and the viewing angle of sensor [6]. A major reason for the insufficiency of available techniques fusion is the change of the PAN spectral range. As for the digital color sensor, each pixel of a color monitor display will comprise red, green and blue elements. "The goal is to use more eye-safe 3-D IR imaging technology that can be easily deployed in the battlefield by mounting on UAVs and helicopters. A major advantage of the IR channel is that it can sense energy at night, so this imagery is available 24 hours a day. Rheinmetall Canada (Montreal, Canada) will integrate BAE Systems' uncooled thermal weapon sights into the fire control system of the Canadian Army's 40-mm grenade launcher. Note that a digital image is composed of a finite number of elements, each of which has a particular location and value. Please Contact Us. At IR wavelengths, the detector must be cooled to 77 K, so the f-stop is actually inside the dewar. The most recent Landsat satellite, Landsat 9, was launched on 27 September 2021.[4]. However, this intrinsic resolution can often be degraded by other factors, which introduce blurring of the image, such as improper focusing, atmospheric scattering and target motion. In addition, DRS has also developed new signal-processing technology based on field-programmable gate-array architecture for U.S. Department of Defense weapon systems as well as commercial original equipment manufacturer cameras. The type of imagery is wet film panoramic and it used two cameras (AFT&FWD) for capturing stereographic imagery. 5, pp. Unlike visible light, infrared radiation cannot go through water or glass. This basic version of the SC8200 and SC8300 series cameras will include "ExaminIR" software, a 50-mm lens, and thermographic calibration from 0 C to 500 C for $99,500. The ASTER is an imaging instrument onboard Terra, the flagship satellite of NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS) launched in December 1999. About Us, Spotter Resources In 2015, Planet acquired BlackBridge, and its constellation of five RapidEye satellites, launched in August 2008. Following are the disadvantages of Infrared sensor: Infrared frequencies are affected by hard objects (e.g. swath width, spectral and radiometric resolution, observation and data transmission duration. MCT has predominantly been long wave, but the higher-operating-temperature MWIR is now possible, Scholten says. For tracking long distances through the atmosphere, the MWIR range at 3 to 5 m is ideal. The technology has come a long way in a short time to improve performance, noise and array size, but many barriers remain. This leads to the dilemma of limited data volumes, an increase in spatial resolution must be compensated by a decrease in other data sensitive parameters, e.g. A. Al-zuky ,2011. The most commonly used measure, based on the geometric properties of the imaging system is the instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of sensor [17]. "In a conventional APD, the voltage bias is set to a few volts below its breakdown voltage, exhibiting a typical gain of 15 to 30," says Onat. 5- 14. In the first class are those methods, which project the image into another coordinate system and substitute one component. Several words of fusion have appeared, such as merging, combination, synergy, integration. Routledge -Taylar & Francis Group. 537-540. Landsat 7 has an average return period of 16 days. Concepts of image fusion in remote sensing applications. B. RapidEye satellite imagery is especially suited for agricultural, environmental, cartographic and disaster management applications. They, directly, perform some type of arithmetic operation on the MS and PAN bands such as addition, multiplication, normalized division, ratios and subtraction which have been combined in different ways to achieve a better fusion effect. Several satellites are built and maintained by private companies, as follows. Some of the more popular programs are listed below, recently followed by the European Union's Sentinel constellation. Generally, remote sensing has become an important tool in many applications, which offers many advantages over other methods of data acquisition: Satellites give the spatial coverage of large areas and high spectral resolution. Similarly Maxar's QuickBird satellite provides 0.6 meter resolution (at nadir) panchromatic images. For now, next-generation systems for defense are moving to 17-m pitch. The SM used to solve the two major problems in image fusion colour distortion and operator (or dataset) dependency. Llinas J.and Hall D. L., 1998, "An introduction to multi-sensor data fusion. The objectives of this paper are to present an overview of the major limitations in remote sensor satellite image and cover the multi-sensor image fusion. "The small system uses a two-color sensor to detect and track a missile launch while directing a laser to defeat it," says Mike Scholten, vice president of sensors at DRS's RSTA group. One trade-off is that high-def IR cameras are traditionally expensive: The cost increases with the number of pixels. GaoJing-1 / SuperView-1 (01, 02, 03, 04) is a commercial constellation of Chinese remote sensing satellites controlled by China Siwei Surveying and Mapping Technology Co. Ltd. The conclusion of this, According to literature, the remote sensing is still the lack of software tools for effective information extraction from remote sensing data. In a radiometric calibrated image, the actual intensity value derived from the pixel digital number. Image fusion is a sub area of the more general topic of data fusion [25].The concept of multi-sensor data fusion is hardly new while the concept of data fusion is not new [26]. The type of radiat ion emitted depends on an object's temperature. Which satellite imagery has near-infrared for NDVI? Some of the popular CS methods for pan sharpening are the Intensity Hue Saturation IHS; Intensity Hue Value HSV; Hue Luminance Saturation HLS and Luminance I component (in-phase, an orange - cyan axis) Q component (Quadrature, a magenta - green axis) YIQ [37]. US Dept of Commerce The highest humidities will be the whitest areas while dry regions will be dark. (4 points) 3. Zhang Y.,2010. Therefore, multiple sensor data fusion introduced to solve these problems. 2, 2010 pp. MODIS is on board the NASA Terra and Aqua satellites. A significant advantage of multi-spectral imagery is the ability to detect important differences between surface materials by combining spectral bands. Image fusion forms a subgroup within this definition and aims at the generation of a single image from multiple image data for the extraction of information of higher quality. Myint, S.W., Yuan, M., Cerveny, R.S., Giri, C.P., 2008. National Weather Service Directions. Generally, the better the spatial resolution is the greater the resolving power of the sensor system will be [6]. Thus, the MS bands have a higher spectral resolution, but a lower spatial resolution compared to the associated PAN band, which has a higher spatial resolution and a lower spectral resolution [21]. The Science of Imaging. Classifier combination and score level fusion: concepts and practical aspects. The sensors also measure heat radiating off the surface of the earth. If the rivers are not visible, they are probably covered with clouds. The images were stored online and were compiled into a vide. Global defense budgets are subject to cuts like everything else, with so many countries experiencing debt and looming austerity measures at home. INSPIRE lenses have internal surfaces covered with proprietary antireflection coatings with a reflection of less than 0.5 percent in the SWIR wavelength region. Advances In Multi-Sensor Data Fusion: Algorithms And Applications . Sensors all having a limited number of spectral bands (e.g. A low-quality instrument with a high noise level would necessary, therefore, have a lower radiometric resolution compared with a high-quality, high signal-to-noise-ratio instrument. The CS fusion techniques consist of three steps. >> A. Rogalski. (b) In contrast, infrared images are related to brightness. Logan S., 1998. Lillesand T., and Kiefer R.1994. Therefore, the original spectral information of the MS channels is not or only minimally affected [22]. The Landsat 8 satellite payload consists of two science instrumentsthe Operational Land Imager (OLI) and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). Sensors 8 (2), pp.1128-1156. What is the Value of Shortwave Infrared? "Satellite Communications".3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Tso B. and Mather P. M., 2009. "The SWaP characteristics of a cooled system are now reduced enough for battery-operated handheld systems," says Scholten.
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